Search

Company Innovation drives everything we do Driven by Innovation, Instruments Made to Measure We engineer and manufacture advanced measurement technologies and software solutions that redefine industry standards. Headquartered in Freiberg, Germany, we are a globally established leader with over 3,000 metrology systems worldwide. Our cutting-edge solutions serve dynamic industries like microelectronics, semiconductors, photovoltaics, chemicals, and medicine, delivering exceptional precision and unmatched efficiency. With ISO 9001:2015 certification, we prioritize quality and reliability at every step. We are Freiberg Instruments. We are driven by Innovation. Learn more about us Headquartered in Germany with more than 20 years of expertise +3,000 installations worldwide 20 years of expertise 11 sales offices worldwide +100 experts +100 experts We are Automation and Metrology Experts Our team of engineers, scientists, and professionals shares a relentless passion for excellence. Together, we have built a reputation for reliability, innovation, and exceptional customer service. We constantly redefines the limits of metrology. Meet the Team Career Opportunities Thesis and Internship Driving sustainability for a greener future Sustainability is at the core of Freiberg Instruments. We are committed to eco-friendly practices, targeted energy savings, and maintaining high occupational health and safety standards. Our roadmap aims for net-zero operations by 2030 and across the entire value chain by 2040. Together, we innovate responsibly for a greener, sustainable future. Read more Discover more Distributors & Partners Learn more Quality and Certification Learn more News Learn more Contact Learn more

Products Innovative Metrology and Automation Solutions We engineer advanced metrology and automation solutions that redefine industry standards. Our precision-driven systems empower research and production environments across various high-tech industries, ensuring accuracy, efficiency, and reliability. XRD series Advanced X-Ray diffractometers Devices for crystal orientation, sample alignment & quality control Learn more RES series Resistivity Mapping Accurate material analysis for semiconductor quality control Learn more MDP series Microwave Detected Photoconductivity Contactless mapping of key electrical semiconductor parameters Learn more SPS/SPV series Surface Photovoltage Spectroscopy Contactless characterization of key electro-optical material parameters Learn more DPM series Double Prism Monochromator Unlock the future of spectral analysis Learn more PID series Potential Induced Degradation Advanced Solutions for PID Detection and Quality Control in Solar Cells & Module Learn more TL/OSL series Luminescence Dating and Dosimetry Advanced luminescence systems for geology, archaeology, and radiation dosimetry Learn more RMS series Radiation Monitoring System Protecting people, workspaces, and the environment with precision Learn more Ramses series Raman Sensor Fully automated, high sensitive for polymer and semiconductor sorting Learn more Each of our product lines is designed to meet the highest industry standards, providing unparalleled performance for researchers and manufacturers worldwide. Dr. Kay Dornich Chief Executive Officer Discover more Solutions Learn more Services Learn more Company Learn more

Skip breadcrumb navigation Breadcrumb Freiberg Instruments Products X-ray Diffraction Omega/Theta XRD Omega/Theta - Rocking curve measurement Omega/Theta - Rocking curve measurement Unique insights into lattice quality Interested? Get in touch! Contact now The Rocking Curve of a crystal reflection indicates the quality of the crystalline lattice. This can be down pointwise for fast checking or in combination with a mapping tool to receive a quality map. Measuring a Rocking Curve means measuring in Theta-scan mode, which requires a goniometer. A double crystal is brought into the primary beam path to decrease the spectral width and divergency. However, the side effect is a strongly reduced intensity. Therefore, the double crystal is mounted on a retractable holder to be able to switch it "on" or "off". Rocking curves of a 6H SiC crystal measured along a line on spots of 8 mm distance

Skip breadcrumb navigation Breadcrumb Freiberg Instruments Products X-ray Diffraction Omega/Theta XRD Omega/Theta - Stacking stage Omega/Theta – Stacking stage Industrial production of crystals such as SiC yields thick ingots Interested? Get in touch! Contact now These need to be aligned prior to sawing process. Freiberg Instruments provides a convenient holder system to align ingots using Omega-scan . The entire stack is transferred to wire saw. Parallel sawing saves time significantly. SiC Y3Al5012 Sampler diameter 75 to 200 mm 50 to 65 mm Sample height 6 to 50 mmm 6 to 50 mm number of stacks 12 12

Skip breadcrumb navigation Breadcrumb Freiberg Instruments Products X-ray Diffraction Omega/Theta XRD Omega/Theta - Customized sample holders Customized sample holders Fixtures for tiny cylinders, large ingots or cubes for crystal orientation Interested? Get in touch! Contact now Sample stage for large samples for large samples up to 590 mm diameter max. sample mass = 30 kg additional fixtures for complex sample geometry on request Special holders for small samples fixing of small samples quick & easy sample placement simply exchangeable with other holder

Microwave detected photoconductivity The advanced method MDP is suited for defect investigation and mapping of wafers and ingotsWith its extraordinary sensitivity, resolution and speed MDP enables injection dependent measurements as well as mapping with a very high resolution. The novel method MDP is well suited for both, defect investigation by e.g. injection dependent minority carrier lifetime measurements, as well as mapping of wafers or even bricks for inline metrology. It exceeds his competitors µPCD (microwave detected photoconductivity decay) and QSSPC (quasi steady state photo conductance) in terms of sensitivity, resolution and speed. The photoconductivity, which is closely related to the diffusion length is measured by microwave absorption during and after the excitation with a rectangular laser pulse. Figure 1 displays the measurement principle for MDP and MD-PICTS measurements. generation of free carriers traps are filled with carriers recombination of free carriers thermal reemission of trapped carriers temporally shifted recombination of reemitted carriers A microwave with about 10 GHz is generated in a frequent stable microwave-generator and split into a reference and measurement part. With an attenuator the power can be adjusted and ranges typically from 1 to 100 MW. The sample is situated just outside the cavity and is part of the measurement system. A special iris in the cavity-wall allows the microwave field to penetrate the sample. Thus, the complex dielectric constant of the sample influences the resonant frequency and the loss properties of the cavity. Microwave absorption by excess charge carriers is detected with an IQ-detector. The sample is placed on an x-y-table, allowing theoretically every sample size and to move the sample in the x-y-plane. For temperature dependent MD-PICTS measurements the sample has to be part of a cryostat system, so that the sample size is currently limited, but apart from that it is principally the same measurement system. Fig. 1: Energy scheme of the measurement principle Fig. 2: Exemplary signal Fig. 3: setup for MDP and MD-PICTS The high detection sensitivity enabled by this technique allows the application even of weak laser pulses with an intensity of µW to mW and with unlimited pulse duration. Hence it is possible to measure in a non- or steady state regime and to continously vary the pulse length from 100 ns to several ms. The resolution of this system is only limited by the diffusion length of the sample. Besides advantages in speed and sensitivity, a major advantage of MDP is the ability to measure photoconductivity and minority carrier lifetime simultaneously. Accordingly more parameters can be extracted from each measurement, like diffusion length, mobility and even trapping dynamics. Fig. 4: Exemplary lifetime map of a mc-Si wafer Fig 5: Exemplary photoconductivity map of a mc-Si wafer Matching Products MDP series MDPmap Precision Lifetime Charachterization with Exceptional Sensitivity Learn more MDP series MDPspot Quick and Simple Lifetime Measurement Made Easy Learn more MDP series MDpicts pro High-Resolution, Temperature-Dependent Lifetime Measurement System for Precise Material Characterization Learn more MDP series MDPpro 850+ Advanced Solution for Quality Control of Monocrystalline Silicon Ingots, Bricks, and Wafers Learn more MDP series MDPlinescan Versatile OEM Unit for Lifetime Measurements on Silicon Samples, from Bricks to Processed Wafers Learn more MDP series MDpicts Temperature-Dependent Lifetime Measurement System for Advanced Material Analysis Learn more RES series RESmap High-Precision Resistivity Mapping System for Accurate Material Analysis Learn more Get in touch Do not hesitate to contact us – we are available to assist you with any inquiries or requests. Use our inquiry tool or reach out via email: sales @ freiberginstruments.com

Lifetime simulations To gain a better understanding of lifetime measurements and to achieve a better comparability between different measuring methods, it is necessary to perform simulations. Generalized rate equations for lifetime simulations This numerical tool is based on a generalized rate equation system, which is solved for all possible transitions between the defect levels in the forbidden gap and the bands of a semiconductor. The only approximation is, that no interactions between defect levels are included. This is a valid approximation, since the defect density in silicon is typically low. The applied rate equation system describes the time dependent change of carrier concentrations in the conduction and valence band, as well as in defect levels. In this equation system the optical and thermal generation rates, the band to band and Auger recombination rates and the carrier capture and emission rates from all defects (Cj, Dj, Ej, Fj) are included. The transition rates are described without any approximations. \(\dot{n} = G^0_{BB} + G^th_{BB} + \sum_{j}(C_j - D_j) - R_{BB} - R_{Aug}\) \(\dot{p} = G^0_{BB} + G^th_{BB} + \sum_{j}(F_j - E_j) - R_{BB} - R_{Aug}\) \(\dot{n}_{Tj} = D_j + E_j) - C_j - F_j\) Fig. 1: energy scheme of all transition rates that are included into the simulations From the simulated time dependent carrier concentrations the photoconductivity can be calculated using the mobility model of DORKEL and LETURCQ [2] . The minority carrier lifetime can be extracted from the transient of the photoconductivity after Gopt is set to zero. advantages compared to SRH simulations or PC1D lifetime is not a parameter, but a direct result non steady state can be simulated as well an arbitrary number j of defect levels can be included The numerical simulation tool is suited for simulation of injection and temperature dependent measurements, for investigating the trapping effect on lifetime and photoconductivity and for the comparison of MDP and µPCD or other measurement conditions. Summarizing, this simulation tool enables to make lifetime measurements more comparable and to achieve a better understanding of the results. Fig. 2: varying Et Fig. 3: varying Nt Fig. 4: varying σp More information about these simulations can be found in: [1] T. Hahn, Thesis, TU Bergakademie, 2009 [2] J. M. Dorkel and P. Leturcq, Solid-State Electronics 24, 821-825 (1981) Matching Products MDP series MDPmap Precision Lifetime Charachterization with Exceptional Sensitivity Learn more MDP series MDPspot Quick and Simple Lifetime Measurement Made Easy Learn more MDP series MDpicts pro High-Resolution, Temperature-Dependent Lifetime Measurement System for Precise Material Characterization Learn more MDP series MDPpro 850+ Advanced Solution for Quality Control of Monocrystalline Silicon Ingots, Bricks, and Wafers Learn more MDP series MDPlinescan Versatile OEM Unit for Lifetime Measurements on Silicon Samples, from Bricks to Processed Wafers Learn more MDP series MDpicts Temperature-Dependent Lifetime Measurement System for Advanced Material Analysis Learn more RES series RESmap High-Precision Resistivity Mapping System for Accurate Material Analysis Learn more Get in touch Do not hesitate to contact us – we are available to assist you with any inquiries or requests. Use our inquiry tool or reach out via email: sales @ freiberginstruments.com

Comparison to µ-PCD and QSSPC Among carrier lifetime experiments, it is still one of the biggest problems to understand widely contradicting results as obtained by different experimental methods. With our novel simulation tool it is possible to simulate steady state and non stead Besides MDP the two most important contact less lifetime measuring methods are QSSPC (quasi steady state photoconductivity) and µ-PCD (microwave detected photoconductive decay). Currently one of the biggest problems in the photovoltaic industry is to make the deviating lifetime measurement results of the different methods comparable. With our novel simulation tool it is possible to simulate steady state and non steady state measurements, so that a comparison is possible. µ-PCD The µ-PCD method typically operates at very high injections with a very short light pulse of only 200 ns. The minority carrier lifetime is determined via the photoconductive decay, similar to MDP. µ-PCD detects the photoconductivity by measuring the reflection of a microwave at the sample, which makes this method less sensitive than MDP. QSSPC QSSPC detects the changes in permeability of the sample and therefore the conductance via the coupling of the sample by a coil to a radio-frequency bridge. The exciting light is tuned down slowly, so that the sample is always in a quasi steady state. A further difference to MDP is the use of a flash-light with a hole light spectrum, in stead of monochrome laser light as the excitation source. Figure 1 displays the injection ranges in which the different lifetime measuring methods typically operate. It becomes clear that MDP surpasses the other methods, because it enables to measure over 7 decades of injection. If the measurement results of these different methods are compared, the injection, excitation wavelength, penetration depth of the microwave, the carrier profile and the different behaviour of traps, that depends on the duration of the light pulse, has to be taken into consideration. For more details read: [1] T. Hahn, Thesis, TU Bergakademie, 2009 Fig. 1: Comparison of MDP, µPCD and QSSPC with respect to their typical injection ranges Matching Products MDP series MDPmap Precision Lifetime Charachterization with Exceptional Sensitivity Learn more MDP series MDPspot Quick and Simple Lifetime Measurement Made Easy Learn more MDP series MDpicts pro High-Resolution, Temperature-Dependent Lifetime Measurement System for Precise Material Characterization Learn more MDP series MDPpro 850+ Advanced Solution for Quality Control of Monocrystalline Silicon Ingots, Bricks, and Wafers Learn more MDP series MDPlinescan Versatile OEM Unit for Lifetime Measurements on Silicon Samples, from Bricks to Processed Wafers Learn more MDP series MDpicts Temperature-Dependent Lifetime Measurement System for Advanced Material Analysis Learn more RES series RESmap High-Precision Resistivity Mapping System for Accurate Material Analysis Learn more Get in touch Do not hesitate to contact us – we are available to assist you with any inquiries or requests. Use our inquiry tool or reach out via email: sales @ freiberginstruments.com

Simulation of carrier profiles For measurements at thick samples like ingots, it is very important to simulate the carrier depth profile, that developes in the sample. The measured lifetime is strongly effected by this profile, so that this effect has to be taken into account. Simulation of carrier profiles in thick samples The measurement of thick samples as bricks leads to new questions and problems. One of these questions is how the carrier profiles that develops in a sample effect the lifetime measurements. To solve this problem, we developed a simulation tool for the modelling of carrier profiles. This tool consists of a partial differential equation system of the transport equations for electrons and holes and the Poisson equation. \(\frac{\partial}{\partial t}n(x,t)=\frac{\partial}{\partial x} \left[ -\mu_nn(x,t)\frac{\partial}{\partial x} \Psi(x,t) + D_n\frac{\partial}{\partial x}n(x,t) \right]+ G^o(x,t) - U(x,t)\) \(\frac{\partial}{\partial t}p(x,t)=\frac{\partial}{\partial x} \left[ \mu_pp(x,t)\frac{\partial}{\partial x} \Psi(x,t) + D_p\frac{\partial}{\partial x}p(x,t) \right]+ G^o(x,t) - U(x,t)\) \(\frac {\partial^2}{\partial x^2} \Psi (x,t) = -\frac{q}{\in_0\in_y} \left[ -n(x,t) + p(x,t)_\text{dot} \right]\) Transport equations for electrons and holes + Poisson equation The simulations for measurements with a long (typical MDP condition) or a very short light pulse (typical µ-PCD conditions) at thick unpassivated samples are shown in figure 1 and 2. It becomes clear, that the carrier profile of a long light pulse expands through a large volume of the sample, where as the carrier profile of the only 200 ns long light pulse is very surface near. This has a direct effect on the measured lifetime, since the surface recombination has a much stronger effect on the µ-PCD measurements. Figure 3 shows the quantitative effect of the surface recombination on the effective lifetime for both measurement conditions. The MDP measurements are less prone to the surface effect, so that MDP measurements are more suited for the investigation of bulk properties. Accordingly µ-PCD is an ideal method to investigate the surface properties of a sample. Fig.3: evaluated effective lifetimes as a function of bulk lifetime for both methods Matching Products MDP series MDPmap Precision Lifetime Charachterization with Exceptional Sensitivity Learn more MDP series MDPspot Quick and Simple Lifetime Measurement Made Easy Learn more MDP series MDpicts pro High-Resolution, Temperature-Dependent Lifetime Measurement System for Precise Material Characterization Learn more MDP series MDPpro 850+ Advanced Solution for Quality Control of Monocrystalline Silicon Ingots, Bricks, and Wafers Learn more MDP series MDPlinescan Versatile OEM Unit for Lifetime Measurements on Silicon Samples, from Bricks to Processed Wafers Learn more MDP series MDpicts Temperature-Dependent Lifetime Measurement System for Advanced Material Analysis Learn more RES series RESmap High-Precision Resistivity Mapping System for Accurate Material Analysis Learn more Get in touch Do not hesitate to contact us – we are available to assist you with any inquiries or requests. Use our inquiry tool or reach out via email: sales @ freiberginstruments.com

MD-PICTS MD-PICTS is a modification of MDP, where temperature dependent measurements of the defect part of the transient are accomplished. MD-PICTS – microwave detected photo induced current transient spectroscopy MD-PICTS is a modification of MDP, where temperature dependent measurements of the defect part of the transient are accomplished. This allows for a spatially resolved defect characterization. Similar to DLTS (deep level transient spectroscopy), the activation energy and the capture cross section of the defects can be determined. However, in contrast to DLTS, no contacts are needed. This is extremly valuable for defect identification and material quality improvement. Fig. 1: example of a MD-PICTS spectrum of different tempered Cz—Si wafers If you want to learn more about this method read: B. Grundig-Wendrock, M. Jurisch, and J. R. Niklas, Materials Science and Engineering B-Solid State Materials for Advanced Technology 91, 371-375 (2002) S. Hahn, F. Beyer, A. Gällström, P. Carlsson, A. Henry, B. Magnusson, J. R. Niklas, and E. Janzen, Materials Science Forum 600-603, 405-408 (2009) K. Dornich, K. Niemietz, Mt. Wagner, J.R. Niklas, Material Science in Semiconductor Processing, Elsevier, 241-245 Bastian Berger, Nadine Schüler, Sabrina Anger, Bianca Gründig-Wendrock, Jürgen R. Niklas, Kay Dornich, Contactless electrical defect characterization in semiconductors by microwave detected photo induced current transient spectroscopy (MD-PICTS) and microwave detected photoconductivity (MDP) Matching Products MDP series MDPmap Precision Lifetime Charachterization with Exceptional Sensitivity Learn more MDP series MDPspot Quick and Simple Lifetime Measurement Made Easy Learn more MDP series MDpicts pro High-Resolution, Temperature-Dependent Lifetime Measurement System for Precise Material Characterization Learn more MDP series MDPpro 850+ Advanced Solution for Quality Control of Monocrystalline Silicon Ingots, Bricks, and Wafers Learn more MDP series MDPlinescan Versatile OEM Unit for Lifetime Measurements on Silicon Samples, from Bricks to Processed Wafers Learn more MDP series MDpicts Temperature-Dependent Lifetime Measurement System for Advanced Material Analysis Learn more RES series RESmap High-Precision Resistivity Mapping System for Accurate Material Analysis Learn more Get in touch Do not hesitate to contact us – we are available to assist you with any inquiries or requests. Use our inquiry tool or reach out via email: sales @ freiberginstruments.com